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Revisit to the "Fujiwhara effect" on a tropical cyclone track

Research Project

Project/Area Number 18H01283
Research Category

Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B)

Allocation TypeSingle-year Grants
Section一般
Review Section Basic Section 17020:Atmospheric and hydrospheric sciences-related
Research InstitutionUniversity of the Ryukyus

Principal Investigator

伊藤 耕介  琉球大学, 理学部, 准教授 (10634123)

Co-Investigator(Kenkyū-buntansha) 山田 広幸  琉球大学, 理学部, 准教授 (30421879)
山口 宗彦  気象庁気象研究所, 応用気象研究部, 主任研究官 (80595405)
Project Period (FY) 2018-04-01 – 2023-03-31
Project Status Granted (Fiscal Year 2022)
Budget Amount *help
¥16,900,000 (Direct Cost: ¥13,000,000、Indirect Cost: ¥3,900,000)
Fiscal Year 2022: ¥2,340,000 (Direct Cost: ¥1,800,000、Indirect Cost: ¥540,000)
Fiscal Year 2021: ¥3,250,000 (Direct Cost: ¥2,500,000、Indirect Cost: ¥750,000)
Fiscal Year 2020: ¥3,510,000 (Direct Cost: ¥2,700,000、Indirect Cost: ¥810,000)
Fiscal Year 2019: ¥4,160,000 (Direct Cost: ¥3,200,000、Indirect Cost: ¥960,000)
Fiscal Year 2018: ¥3,640,000 (Direct Cost: ¥2,800,000、Indirect Cost: ¥840,000)
Keywords台風 / 藤原効果 / 非静力学モデル / 進路予報 / 渦力学 / 天気予報 / 渦
Outline of Annual Research Achievements

昨年度の理想化実験を用いた数値的研究において,2つの台風が自身の作り出す鉛直シアにより対流活動の偏りを生じ,互いに離れていくという作用(以下,3次元的な藤原効果と呼ぶ)が見いだされた.このことを受けて,再解析データERA5に基づいて現実の台風における3次元的な藤原効果の検証を進めた.その結果,北西太平洋に2つの台風がある場合,相手の台風を正面に見てその左側後方に対流活動が偏る傾向にあり,対流活動の偏りは,2つの台風の反時計回りの運動を阻害し,お互いを引き離す方向に働いていることがわかった.この鉛直シアの強さの半分程度は気候値でも説明できたが,2つの台風が自身に及ぼす鉛直シアが残りの半分程度を占めることが分かった.理想化実験の結果については,ハリケーンカンファレンスやAOGSなどの主要国際学会で発表を行い,国際誌に論文を投稿した.

台風と台風以外の渦の相互作用の例として,台風の北東に位置する停滞前線が台風の移動に及ぼす影響について,2020年台風第14号を題材としてPV inversionを用いて解析を行った.その結果,台風が北東側に存在する停滞前線に接近してきた10月8日以降,停滞前線に伴う対流圏下層の渦位は,台風を南東側に動かすような風を成すことが分かった.このとき,気象庁は現実よりも北西側に台風の進路を予報しており,かつ,停滞前線の表現が弱かったことから,少なくとも台風進路予報誤差の一部は,停滞前線の表現の弱さに起因していたものと考えられる.この研究成果について,日本気象学会秋季大会で発表を行った.

さらに,多様な要因によって海面水温解析にバイアスが生じうることを示し,これが,台風の進路や強度に及ぼす影響を明らかにした(Ito, 2022)ほか,台風の進路予報誤差が増大しやすい場合の類型化を行った(Tang et al. 2021).

Current Status of Research Progress
Current Status of Research Progress

2: Research has progressed on the whole more than it was originally planned.

Reason

本研究の主要テーマである藤原効果の新たな側面について,理想化実験のみならず,現実データに即した解析も進んでいるため.

Strategy for Future Research Activity

これまでに得られた,対流活動の偏りを介した3次元的な藤原効果に関する理想化実験とデータ解析の結果は,従来の藤原効果の概念を大きく塗り替えるものであるため,速やかに国際誌での論文出版を目指す.また,前線が台風の進路に及ぼす影響についても,国際誌での論文の出版を目指す.

次年度は本課題の最終年度に当たるため,成果報告と今後の台風進路研究のあるべき方向について話し合うための公開のワークショップを開催する.これにより,これまでの研究成果を多くの研究者同士で共有するとともに,今後の課題についても明らかにすることが可能となる.

Report

(4 results)
  • 2021 Annual Research Report
  • 2020 Annual Research Report
  • 2019 Annual Research Report
  • 2018 Annual Research Report

Research Products

(61 results)

All 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 Other

All Int'l Joint Research (7 results) Journal Article (14 results) (of which Int'l Joint Research: 3 results,  Peer Reviewed: 10 results,  Open Access: 13 results) Presentation (38 results) (of which Int'l Joint Research: 16 results,  Invited: 4 results) Book (1 results) Funded Workshop (1 results)

  • [Int'l Joint Research] 香港城市大(その他の国・地域)

    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
  • [Int'l Joint Research] Kyungpook National University(韓国)

    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
  • [Int'l Joint Research] 香港城市大学(その他の国・地域)

    • Related Report
      2020 Annual Research Report
  • [Int'l Joint Research] 国立台湾大学(その他の国・地域)

    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Int'l Joint Research] インペリアル・カレッジ・ロンドン(英国)

    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Int'l Joint Research] Sun Yat-sen University(中国)

    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Int'l Joint Research] National Center for Atmospheric Research(米国)

    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Journal Article] Bias in Near-Real-Time Global Sea Surface Temperature Analysis of Japan Meteorological Agency Associated with Tropical Cyclone Passages in Western North Pacific2022

    • Author(s)
      ITO Kosuke
    • Journal Title

      JMSJ

      Volume: 100 Issue: 2 Pages: 321-341

    • DOI

      10.2151/jmsj.2022-016

    • NAID

      130008127642

    • ISSN
      0026-1165, 2186-9057
    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Large tropical cyclone track forecast errors of global numerical weather prediction models in western North Pacific basin2021

    • Author(s)
      Tang Chi Kit、Chan Johnny C.L.、Yamaguchi Munehiko
    • Journal Title

      Tropical Cyclone Research and Review

      Volume: 10 Pages: 151-169

    • DOI

      10.1016/j.tcrr.2021.07.001

    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Warm Ocean Accelerating Tropical Cyclone Hagibis (2019) through Interaction with a Mid-Latitude Westerly Jet2021

    • Author(s)
      Ito Kosuke、Ichikawa Hana
    • Journal Title

      SOLA

      Volume: 17A Issue: Special_Edition Pages: 1-6

    • DOI

      10.2151/sola.17a-001

      10.2151/sola.17A-001

    • NAID

      130007965355

    • ISSN
      1349-6476
    • Related Report
      2020 Annual Research Report
  • [Journal Article] Probability Ellipse for Tropical Cyclone Track Forecasts with Multiple Ensembles2020

    • Author(s)
      KAWABATA Yasuhiro、YAMAGUCHI Munehiko
    • Journal Title

      JMSJ

      Volume: 98 Issue: 4 Pages: 821-833

    • DOI

      10.2151/jmsj.2020-042

    • NAID

      130007890422

    • ISSN
      0026-1165, 2186-9057
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Effects of the outer size on tropical cyclone track forecasts2020

    • Author(s)
      Tang Chi Kit、Chan Johnny C. L.、Yamaguchi Munehiko
    • Journal Title

      Meteorological Applications

      Volume: 27 Pages: 1-15

    • DOI

      10.1002/met.1888

    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Recent Progress in the Fundamental Understanding of Tropical Cyclone Motion2020

    • Author(s)
      Ito Kosuke、Wu Chun-Chieh、Chan Kelvin T. F.、Toumi Ralf、Davis Chris
    • Journal Title

      JMSJ

      Volume: 98 Issue: 1 Pages: 5-17

    • DOI

      10.2151/jmsj.2020-001

    • NAID

      130007817609

    • ISSN
      0026-1165, 2186-9057
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Determining 70 Percent Probability-Circle Radii of Tropical Cyclone Track Forecasts with Multiple Ensembles2019

    • Author(s)
      Fukuda Junya、Yamaguchi Munehiko
    • Journal Title

      SOLA

      Volume: 15 Issue: 0 Pages: 250-256

    • DOI

      10.2151/sola.2019-045

    • NAID

      130007775621

    • ISSN
      1349-6476
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Analyses of Extreme Precipitation Associated with the Kinugawa River Flood in September 2015 Using a Large Ensemble Downscaling Experiment2019

    • Author(s)
      FUJITA Mikiko、SATO Tomonori、YAMADA Tomohito J.、KAWAZOE Sho、NAKANO Masuo、ITO Kosuke
    • Journal Title

      JMSJ

      Volume: 97 Issue: 2 Pages: 387-401

    • DOI

      10.2151/jmsj.2019-022

    • NAID

      130007623951

    • ISSN
      0026-1165, 2186-9057
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Determining Probability-Circle Radii of Tropical Cyclone Track Forecasts with Multiple Ensembles2019

    • Author(s)
      Fukuda, Junichi; Yamaguchi Munehiko
    • Journal Title

      RSMC Tokyo Typhoon Center Technical Review

      Volume: 21

    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Characteristics of Tropical Cyclone Rapid Intensification over the Western North Pacific2018

    • Author(s)
      Fudeyasu Hironori、Ito Kosuke、Miyamoto Yoshiaki
    • Journal Title

      Journal of Climate

      Volume: 31 Pages: 8917-8930

    • DOI

      10.1175/jcli-d-17-0653.1

    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Analysis and Forecast Using Dropsonde Data from the Inner-Core Region of Tropical Cyclone Lan (2017) Obtained during the First Aircraft Missions of T-PARCII2018

    • Author(s)
      Ito Kosuke、Yamada Hiroyuki、Yamaguchi Munehiko、Nakazawa Tetsuo、Nagahama Norio、Shimizu Kensaku、Ohigashi Tadayasu、Shinoda Taro、Tsuboki Kazuhisa
    • Journal Title

      SOLA

      Volume: 14 Issue: 0 Pages: 105-110

    • DOI

      10.2151/sola.2018-018

    • NAID

      130007420499

    • ISSN
      1349-6476
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access
  • [Journal Article] Statistical Analysis of Tropical Cyclones in the Solomon Islands2018

    • Author(s)
      Maru Edward、Shibata Taiga、Ito Kosuke
    • Journal Title

      Atmosphere

      Volume: 9 Pages: 227-227

    • DOI

      10.3390/atmos9060227

    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Peer Reviewed / Open Access / Int'l Joint Research
  • [Journal Article] Current and potential use of ensemble forecasts in operational TC forecasting2018

    • Author(s)
      Yamaguchi, M., H Titley, and L. Magnusson
    • Journal Title

      Sub-topic report of WMO 9th International Workshop on Tropical Cyclones

      Volume: -

    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Open Access / Int'l Joint Research
  • [Journal Article] Recent progress in fundamental and theoretical studies on TC motion2018

    • Author(s)
      Kosuke Ito, Chun-Chieh Wu
    • Journal Title

      Sub-topic report of WMO 9th International Workshop on Tropical Cyclones

      Volume: -

    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Open Access / Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] Warm Ocean Accelerating Tropical Cyclone Hagibis(2019) Through Interaction with a Mid-latitude Westerly Jet2021

    • Author(s)
      Ito, K., H. Ichikawa
    • Organizer
      AOGS annual meeting
    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] Three Dimensional Aspects of the Fujiwhara Effect2021

    • Author(s)
      Lee, J., K. Ito, J. Chan
    • Organizer
      AOGS annual meeting
    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] Three Dimensional Aspects of the Fujiwhara Effect2021

    • Author(s)
      Lee, J., K. Ito, J. Chan
    • Organizer
      JpGU Meeting
    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] Three Dimensional Aspects of the Fujiwhara Effect2021

    • Author(s)
      Lee, J., K. Ito, J. Chan
    • Organizer
      34th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology
    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] 3次元的な藤原効果2021

    • Author(s)
      Lee, J., 伊藤耕介, J. Chan
    • Organizer
      日本気象学会春季大会
    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 前線が台風の進路に及ぼす影響2021

    • Author(s)
      平野創一朗, 伊藤耕介
    • Organizer
      日本気象学会秋季大会
    • Related Report
      2021 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 3次元的な藤原効果2021

    • Author(s)
      Jae-Deok Lee, 伊藤耕介, J. Chan
    • Organizer
      熱帯気象研究会
    • Related Report
      2020 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] Binary Tropical Cyclones in a Three-Dimensional Idealized Framework2020

    • Author(s)
      Lee, J., K. Ito, J. Chan
    • Organizer
      JpGU-AGU joint meeting
    • Related Report
      2020 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] 海面水温偏差が中緯度偏西風ジェットとの相互作用を通じて台風Hagibis(2019)の移動速度に及ぼした影響2020

    • Author(s)
      伊藤耕介,市川花
    • Organizer
      台風研究会
    • Related Report
      2020 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 海面水温偏差が中緯度偏西風ジェットとの相互作用を通じて台風Hagibis(2019)の移動速度に及ぼした影響2020

    • Author(s)
      伊藤耕介,市川花
    • Organizer
      日本気象学会秋季大会
    • Related Report
      2020 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] Binary Tropical Cyclones in a Three-Dimensional Idealized Framework2020

    • Author(s)
      J. Lee、K. Ito、J. Chan
    • Organizer
      JpGU-AGU joint meeting
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] 航空機観測のデータを用いた2017年台風第 21号の構造解析2020

    • Author(s)
      高村尭宏、伊藤耕介
    • Organizer
      気象学会沖縄支部研究発表会
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 2019年台風第19号の海面水温偏差に対する感度実験2020

    • Author(s)
      市川花、伊藤耕介
    • Organizer
      気象学会沖縄支部研究発表会
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 台風予報改善のための研究の最前線~社会の多様なニーズに応える~2019

    • Author(s)
      山口宗彦
    • Organizer
      気象研究所成果発表会
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 台風進路予報における予報円の作成手法の改善2019

    • Author(s)
      山口宗彦
    • Organizer
      2019年度日本気象学会秋季大会
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 台風進路予報における予報楕円2019

    • Author(s)
      川端康弘、山口宗彦
    • Organizer
      2019年度日本気象学会秋季大会
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] Recent Research and Development at JMA to Improve Typhoon Forecasts2019

    • Author(s)
      Munehiko Yamaguchi
    • Organizer
      The International Workshop on Tropical Cyclone Ocean Interaction in the Northwest Pacific 2019
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research / Invited
  • [Presentation] Analysis and forecast using dropsonde data from inner-core region of tropical cyclones obtained during the aircraft missions of T-PARCII2019

    • Author(s)
      K. Ito、H. Yamada、M. Yamaguchi、T. Nakazawa、N. Nagahama、K. Shimizu、T. Ohigashi、T. Shinoda、K. Tsuboki
    • Organizer
      Observational campaigns for better weather forecasts
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] 「藤原効果」に関わる特異ベクトル2019

    • Author(s)
      伊藤耕介、山口宗彦
    • Organizer
      2019年度日本気象学会春季大会
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 台風の航空機観測を用いた同化・予測実験2019

    • Author(s)
      伊藤耕介
    • Organizer
      第23回データ同化夏の学校
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 気象庁非静力学モデル(NHM)を用いた台風Chanthuの進路予報の大外し事例の研究2019

    • Author(s)
      比嘉未雅、伊藤耕介
    • Organizer
      日本気象学会秋季大会
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] Tropical Cyclone Binary Interaction on the Idealized Three-dimensional framework: Asymmetry of Diabatic Heating2019

    • Author(s)
      Jae-Deok Lee、伊藤耕介
    • Organizer
      台風研究会
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 藤原効果に関わる特異ベクトル2019

    • Author(s)
      伊藤耕介、山口宗彦
    • Organizer
      第二回高解像度豪雨予測とアンサンブル同化摂動手法に関する研究会
    • Related Report
      2019 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] Analysis and Forecast Using Dropsonde Data from the Inner-Core Region of Tropical Cyclone Lan (2017) Obtained during the First Aircraft Missions of TPARCII2019

    • Author(s)
      Ito, K., H. Yamada, M. Yamaguchi, T. Nakazawa, N. Nagahama, K. Shimizu, T. Ohigashi, K. Tsuboki
    • Organizer
      ICMCS-XIII
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research / Invited
  • [Presentation] Data Assimilation Studies using Big Observation Data in the Projects of Post K and BDA2019

    • Author(s)
      Seko, H., M. Kunii, S. Yokota, Y. Sawada, K. Okamoto, K. Ito and K. Shimoji
    • Organizer
      ICMCS-XIII
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] Overview of T-PARCII aircraft observations of typhoons in 2017 and 20182019

    • Author(s)
      Ito, K., M. Yamaguchi, T. Nakazawa, H. Yamada, N. Nagahama, K. Shimizu, T. Ohigashi, T. Shinoda, K. Tsuboki
    • Organizer
      ICMCS-XIII
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] Analysis and Forecast Using Dropsonde Data from the Inner-Core Region of Tropical Cyclone Lan (2017) Obtained during Aircraft Missions of T-PARCII2019

    • Author(s)
      Ito, K., H. Yamada, M. Yamaguchi, T. Nakazawa, N. Nagahama, K. Shimizu, T. Ohigashi, T. Shinoda, and K. Tsuboki
    • Organizer
      The 7th International Symposium on Data Assimilation 2019
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] 気象庁非静力学モデルを用いた台風進路予報の大外し事例の研究2019

    • Author(s)
      比嘉 未雅, 伊藤耕介
    • Organizer
      日本気象学会沖縄支部研究発表会
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] Statistical Analysis of Tropical Cyclones in the Solomon Islands2018

    • Author(s)
      Maru, E., and K. Ito
    • Organizer
      JpGU Meeting 2018
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] Improvements in the forecast of TC Lan (2017) by assimilating dropsondes from T-PARCII and DOTSTAR2018

    • Author(s)
      Ito, K., M. Yamaguchi, T. Nakazawa, H. Yamada, N. Nagahama, K. Shimizu, T. Ohigashi, T. Shinoda, K. Tsuboki
    • Organizer
      JpGU Meeting 2018
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research
  • [Presentation] 台風進路に関する近年の基礎研究2018

    • Author(s)
      伊藤耕介
    • Organizer
      第二回高解像度豪雨予測とアンサンブル同化摂動手法に関する研究会
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 台風Lan(2017)の航空機観測を用いた同化・予測実験2018

    • Author(s)
      伊藤耕介, 山田広幸, 山口宗彦, 中澤哲夫, 長浜則夫, 清水健作, 篠田太郎, 坪木和久
    • Organizer
      「航空機観測による気候・地球システム科学研究の推進」研究集会
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 気象庁全球数値予測システムとT-PARCIIドロップゾンデを用いた2018年台風第24号を対象とした観測システム実験2018

    • Author(s)
      山口宗彦, 石橋俊之, 中澤哲夫, 伊藤耕介, 山田広幸, 大東忠保, 清水健作, 長浜則夫, 篠田太郎, 高橋暢宏, 坪木和久
    • Organizer
      「航空機観測による気候・地球システム科学研究の推進」研究集会
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] 2017年台風21号の航空機観測を用いた強度解析と予測実験2018

    • Author(s)
      伊藤耕介
    • Organizer
      第一回高解像度豪雨予測とアンサンブル同化摂動手法に関する研究会
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] Observing System Experiment using T-PARCII dropsondes and JMA Global Forecasting System and Development of Sensitivity Analysis Guidance for Tropical Cyclone Intensity2018

    • Author(s)
      山口宗彦, 石橋俊之, 中澤哲夫, 伊藤耕介, 山田広幸, 大東忠保, 篠田太郎, 高橋暢宏, 坪木和久
    • Organizer
      日本地球惑星科学連合
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
  • [Presentation] Current and potential use of ensemble forecasts in operational TC forecasting2018

    • Author(s)
      Yamaguchi, M., H Titley, and L. Magnusson
    • Organizer
      WMO 9th International Workshop on Tropical Cyclones
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research / Invited
  • [Presentation] Recent progress in fundamental and theoretical studies on TC motion2018

    • Author(s)
      Kosuke Ito, Chun-Chieh Wu
    • Organizer
      Sub-topic report of WMO 9th International Workshop on Tropical Cyclones
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
    • Int'l Joint Research / Invited
  • [Presentation] スマート社会を支える台風予報の高度化2018

    • Author(s)
      山口宗彦
    • Organizer
      環境研究シンポジウム
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
  • [Book] 台風についてわかっていることいないこと2018

    • Author(s)
      筆保 弘徳、山田 広幸、宮本 佳明、伊藤 耕介、山口 宗彦、金田 幸恵
    • Total Pages
      242
    • Publisher
      ベレ出版
    • ISBN
      4860645553
    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report
  • [Funded Workshop] ICMCS-XIII2019

    • Related Report
      2018 Annual Research Report

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Published: 2018-04-23   Modified: 2022-12-28  

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